Expansion of job demands-resources model by applying the circumplex model of affect The role of dominant promotion-focus and LMX on the effects of job demands to two-dimensional view of work-related subjective well-being
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to verify the effect of challenge and hindrance job demands on two-dimensional view of work-related subjective well-being and the role of employee’s dominant promotion-focus and LMX based on Russell's circumplex model(1980). A sample of 361 employees were participated voluntarily in this study and data were analyzed. The results and implications of this study are as follows. First, challenge stressor had a positive effect on the positive factors of work-related subjective well-being, while hindrance stressor had a negative effect. The effect of challenge stressor on work engagement was relatively large than the effect on job satisfaction. Second, both challenge and hindrance stressor had a positive effect on the negative factors of work-related subjective well-being. In comparison of the effect size considering activation level, the effect of challenge stressor on workaholic and hindrance stressor on burnout was relatively large compare to each other. Third, employee’s dominant promotion-focus showed the role of enhancing effect of challenge demands on the positive factors of work-related subjective well-being. The LMX has been shown to mitigate the effects of hindrance stressor on workaholic. Finally, theoretical and practical implications of these findings, along with this study limitations and future research directions were discussed.
Metrics
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Ahn. S. H. (2018, May 27). In case of big 600, 24 women out of 100 employees...Women's Employment Rates settled in the Lower- middle-level among OECD. ChosunBiz.https://biz.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2018/05/27/2018052700689.html
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. ISBN-13: 978- 0761907121
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309- 328.https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
Bakker, A. B., & Oerlemans, W. G. M. (2012). Subjective well-being. In K. S. Cameron & G. M. Spreitzer (Eds.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (p. 178-187). Oxford University, ISBN-13: 978-0199989959
Bakker, A. B., Van Emmerik, Ij.H. & Van Riet, P. (2008). How job demands, resources, and burnout predict objective performance: A constructive replication. Anxiety, stress, and coping. 21(3), 309-324.https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800801958637.
Barsade, S. G., & Gibson, D. E. (2007). Why does affect matter in organizations? The Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(1), 36-59.https://doi.org/10.5465/AMP.2007.24286163
Barsade, S. G., Brief, A. P., & Spataro, S. E. (2003). The affective revolution in organizational behavior: The emergence of a paradigm. In J. Greenberg (Ed.), Organizational behavior: The state of the science (pp. 3-52). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. ISBN-13: 978-0805812152
Bass, B. M. (1999) Two decades of research and development in transformational leadership. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(1), 9-32.https://doi.org/10.1080/135943299398410
Benjamin, D., Berger, J., Johannesson, M., Nosek, B., Wagenmakers, E. J., Berk, R., Bollen, K., Brembs, B., Brown, L., Camerer, C., Cesarini, D., Chambers, C., Clyde, M., Cook, T., De Boeck, P., Dienes, Z., Dreber, A., Easwaran, K., Efferson, C., & Johnson, V. (2017). Redefine Statistical Significance. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(1),https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0189-z.
Bhagat, R. S., McQuaid, S. J., Lindholm, H., & Segovis, J. (1985). Total life stress: A multimethod validation of the construct and its effects on organizationally valued outcomes and withdrawal behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(1), 202-214.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.70.1.202
Bonebright, C. A., Clay, D. L., & Ankenmann, R. D. (2000). The relationship of workaholism with work-life conflict, life satisfaction, and purpose in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(4), 469-477.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.4.469
Brief, A. P., & George, J. M. (1995). Psychological stress and the workplace: A brief comment on Lazarus' outlook. In R. Crandall & P. L. Perrewé (Eds.), Occupational stress: A handbook. Series in health psychology and behavioral medicine, (pp. 15-19). Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. ISBN-13: 978-1560323679
Britt, T. W., Adler, A. B., & Bartone, P. T. (2001). Deriving benefits from stressful events: The role of engagement in meaningful work and hardiness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(1), 53-63.https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.6.1.53
Brockner, J., & Higgins, E. T. (2001). Regulatory focus theory: Implications for the study of emotions at work. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86(1), 35-66.https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2001.2972
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In: K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models(136-162). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005
Byrne, B. M. (2016). Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Third Edition. Routledge.
Campbell, W. K., & Sedikides, C. (1999). Self-threat magnifies the self-serving bias: A meta-analytic integration. Review of General Psychology, 3(1), 23-43.https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.3.1.23
Caplan, R. D., Cobb, S., French, J. R. P., Jr., Harrison, R. V., & Pinneau, S. R., Jr. (1975). Job demands and worker health: Main effects and worker health. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical examination of self-reported work stress among U.S. managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(1), 65-74.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.65
Coleman, M. D. (2011). Emotion and the self-serving bias. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues, 30(4), 345-354.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-011-9121-2
Cowles, M., & Davis, C. (1982). On the origins of the .05 level of statistical significance. American Psychologist, 37(5), 553-558.https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.5.553
Cranny, C. J., Smith, P. C., & Store, E. F. (1992). Job satisfaction: How people feel about their jobs and how it affects their performance(p. 246). New York: Lexington Books. ISBN: 066921289X
Crawford, E. R., LePine, J. A., & Rich, B. L. (2010). Linking job demands and resources to employee engagement and burnout: A theoretical extension and meta-analytic test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(5), 834-848. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019364
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Crowe, E., & Higgins, E. T. (1997). Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in decision-making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69(2), 117-132.https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1996.2675
Cumming, G. (2009). Inference by eye: Reading the overlap of independent confidence intervals. Statistics in Medicine, 28(2), 205-220. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.3471
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542-575.https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542
Dienesch, R. M., & Liden, R. C. (1986). Leader- member exchange model of leadership: A critique and further development. The Academy of Management Review, 11(3), 618-634.https://doi.org/10.2307/258314
Dobbins, G. H., & Russell, J. M. (1986). Self-serving biases in leadership: A laboratory experiment. Journal of Management, 12(4), 475-483.https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638601200403
Doty, D. H. & Glick, W. H. (1998). Common method bias: Does common methods variance really bias results?. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 374-406.
https://doi.org/10.1177/109442819814002
Drucker, P., Hesselbein, F., & Kuhl, J. S. (2015). Peter Drucker's five most important questions: Enduring wisdom for today's leaders. Jossey-Bass ISBN: 978-1-118-97959-4
Duchon, D., Green, S. G., & Taber, T. D. (1986). Vertical dyad linkage: A longitudinal assessment of antecedents, measures, and consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(1), 56-60.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.71.1.56
Dweck, C. (2016a). What having a “growth mindset” actually means. Harvard Business Review.https://hbr.org/2016/01/what-having-a-growth-mindset-actually-means
Dweck, C. (2016b). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Ballantine Books. ISBN-13: 978- 0345472328
Epley N., & Gilovich T. (2006). The anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic: why the adjustments are insufficient. Psychological Science. 17(4), 311-318.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01704.x
Erez, A., & Isen, A. M. (2002). The influence of positive affect on the components of expectancy motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 1055-1067.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1055
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(3), 571-579. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.571
Friedman, R. S., & Förster, J. (2001). The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 1001-1013.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1001
Gajendran, R. S., & Joshi, A. (2012). Innovation in globally distributed teams: The role of LMX, communication frequency, and member influence on team decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(6), 1252-1261.https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028958
Gardner, W., Karam, E., Tribble, L., & Cogliser, C. (2019). The missing link? Implications of internal, external, and relational attribution combinations for leader-member exchange, relationship work, self‐work, and conflict. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 40(5), 554-569. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2349
George, J. M. (1991). State or trait: Effects of positive mood on prosocial behaviors at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(2), 299-307. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.299
George, J. M., & Bettenhausen, K. (1990). Understanding prosocial behavior, sales performance, and turnover: A group-level analysis in a service context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(6), 698-709.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.75.6.698
Gerich, Joachim & Weber, Christoph. (2020). The ambivalent appraisal of job demands and the moderating role of job control and social support for burnout and job satisfaction. Social Indicators Research. 148(3), 251-280.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-019-02195-9
Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(6), 827-844.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.827
Graen, G. & Cashman, J. F. (1975) A role making model in formal organizations: A developmental approach. Leadership Frontiers, 143-165. Kent State University Press. ISSN 0146-1400
Grebner, S., Semmer, N. K., & Elfering, A. (2005). Working conditions and three types of well-being: A Longitudinal Study With Self-Report and Rating Data. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(1), 31-43. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.1.31
Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1982). The self-serving attributional bias: Beyond self-presentation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18(1), 56-67.DOI: 10.1016/0022-1031(82)90081-6
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271-299.https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Hakanen, J. J. & Roodt, G. (2010). Using the job demands-resources model to predict engagement: Analysing a conceptual model. In A. B. Bakker & M. P. Leiter (eds.) Work engagement: A Handbook of Essential Theory and Research (pp. 85-101). New York: Psychology Press. ISBN-13: 978-1841697369
Halvorson, G. H. & Higgins, E.. (2013a). Focus: Use different ways of seeing the world for success and influence. Hudson Street Press. ISBN-13: 978-0142180730
Halvorson, G. H. & Higgins, E.. (2013b). Do you play to win or to not lose? Harvard business review. 91. 117-120, 135.https://hbr.org/2013/03/do-you-play-to-win-or-to-not-lose
Hamstra, M. R. W., & Schreurs, B. (2018). Room for advancement: The regulatory fit of bottom‐rank intermediate feedback. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48(6), 890-896.doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2374
Harter, S. (1993). Causes and consequences of low self-esteem in children and adolescents. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Plenum series in social/clinical psychology. Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard (p. 87-116). Plenum Press. ISBN-13: 978-0306443732
Hayes, N., & Joseph, S. (2003). Big 5 correlates of three measures of subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(4), 723-727.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00057-0
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. John Wiley & Sons Inc.https://doi.org/10.1037/10628-000
Heo, C. G., Shin, K. H. (2012). The influence of person-job fit on burnout and work engagement: The moderating effect of LMX. The Korean Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 25(3), 535-556.DOI :10.24230/ksiop.25.3.201208.535
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work (2nd ed.). John Wiley. ISBN: 0471373893 9780471373896
Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1280-1300.https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1280
Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 515-525.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524.https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
Hong, S. H. (2000). The criteria for selecting appropriate fit indices in structural equation modeling and their rationales. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 19(1), 161-177.
Howell, J. P., Dorfman, P. W., & Kerr, S. (1986). Moderator variables in leadership research. The Academy of Management Review, 11(1), 88-102.
Hu L, & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55.https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Imai, Yi. (1994). Effects of influencing attempts on the perceptions of powerholders and the powerless. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. 9, 455-468. ISSN 0886-1641
Ivancevich, J. M., & Matteson, M. T. (1983). Stress Diagnostic Survey. Houston, TX: Stress Research Systems.
Johnson, R. E., Chang, C.-H. (D.), & Yang, L.-Q. (2010). Commitment and motivation at work: The relevance of employee identity and regulatory focus. The Academy of Management Review, 35(2), 226-245.https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2010.48463332
Jones, E. E. (1979). The rocky road from acts to dispositions. American Psychologist, 34(2), 107- 117.https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.2.107
Jose, P. E. (2013). ModGraph-I: A programme to compute cell means for the graphical display of moderational analyses: The internet version, Version 3.0. Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.https://psychology.victoria.ac.nz/modgraph/
Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724. https://doi.org/10.2307/256287
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1990). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. In P. K. Moser (Ed.), Rationality in action: Contemporary approaches (p. 140-170). Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814417358_0006
Keltner, D., Haidt, J., & Shiota, M. N. (2006). Social functionalism and the evolution of emotions. In M. Schaller, J. A. Simpson, & D. T. Kenrick (Eds.), Evolution and social psychology (p. 115-142). Psychosocial Press. ISBN 9781138006096
Kenrick, D., Neuberg, S. L., & Cialdini, R. B. (2015). Social Psychology: Goals in Interaction, 6th Edition. Pearson.ISBN-13: 9780133972689
Kim, K. J. (2019, December 16). The average employee happiness score is 41 points...Which company has the highest happiness score?. Korea Joong-ang Daily.https://news.joins.com/article/23657592
Kim, S. (2016). Job characteristics, public service motivation, and work performance in Korea. Gestion et management public, 5(1), 7-24.https://doi.org/10.3917/gmp.051.0007
Kim, Y. J., Kim, G. W., Kim, H. S., Joo, Y. J. (2014). The effect of marine sports industry’s hindrance factor, attraction factor and satisfaction on the loyalty: Focused on visitors to marinas in Busan. Journal of The Korean Data Analysis Society 16(6), 3255-3265.G704-000930.2014.16.6.029
Krusemark, E. A., Campbell, W. K., & Clementz, B. A. (2008). Attributions, deception, and event related potentials: An investigation of the self-serving bias. Psychophysiology, 45(4), 511-515.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00659.x
Lanaj, K., Chang, C. H., & Johnson, R. E. (2012). Regulatory focus and work-related outcomes: A review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(5), 998-1034.https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027723
Lazarus R.S. & Folkman S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer Publishing Company. ISBN-13: 978-0826141910
Le Blanc, P. M., Bakker, A. B., Peeters, M. C. W., van Heesch, N. C. A., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). Emotional job demands and burnout among oncology care providers. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 14(3), 243-263.https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800108248356
LeDoux, J. (2003). Synaptic Self (How Our Brains Become Who We Are). PenguinUSA. ISBN-13: 978-0142001783
Leiter, M. P. (1993). Burnout as a developmental process: Consideration of models. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Series in applied psychology: Social issues and questions. Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (p. 237-250). Taylor & Francis. ISBN-13: 978-1560326830
Lepine, J. A., Podsakoff, N. P., & Lepine, M. A. (2005). A meta-analytic test of the challenge stressor-hindrance stressor framework: An explanation for inconsistent relationships among stressors and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 48(5), 764-775.https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2005.18803921
Li, Jie. (2015). The mediating roles of job crafting and thriving in the LMX-employee outcomes relationship. Japanese Journal of Administrative Science. 28, 39-51.https://doi.org/10.5651/jaas.28.39
Lim C. H. (2018). Organizational Behavior. Business & Management books. ISBN 9788968210693
Locke, E. A. (1976) The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction. Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 1297-1343.
Lockwood, P., Jordan, C. H., & Kunda, Z. (2002). Motivation by positive or negative role models: Regulatory focus determines who will best inspire us. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 854-864.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.854
Luthans, F. (2005). The High Impact Leader Moments Matter in Accelerating Authentic Leadership Development. McGraw-Hill.https://doi.org/10.4102/sajesbm.v1i1.10
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803-855.https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
Mäkikangas, A., Rantanen, J., Kinnunen, M., Pulkkinen, L., & Kokko, K. (2015). The circumplex model of occupational well-being: Its relation with personality. Journal for Person- Oriented Research. 1. 109-125.https://doi.org/10.17505/jpor.2015.11.
Martin, R., Guillaume, Y., Thomas, G., Lee, A., & Epitropaki, O. (2016). Leader-member exchange (LMX) and performance: A meta- analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 69(1), 67-121. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12100
Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The Cost of Caring. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN: 013091231X 9780130912312 0130912492 9780130912497
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1996). Maslach burnout inventory manual (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. ISBN-13: 978-9996345777
Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., Leiter, M. P., Schaufeli, W. B. and Schwab R. L. (1986). Maslach burnout inventory sampler set manual, general survey, human services survey, educators survey, & scoring guides. Mind Garden Publishers. http://www.mindgarden.com
Mazzetti, G., Schaufeli, W. B., & Guglielmi, D. (2014). Are workaholics born or made? Relations of workaholism with person characteristics and overwork climate. International Journal of Stress Management, 21(3), 227-254.
Mccall, M. W., Lombardo, M. M., & Morrison, A. M. (1988). Lessons of Experience: How Successful Executives Develop on the Job. The Free Press. ISBN-13: 978-0669180954
McMillan, L. H. W., Brady, E. C., O’Driscoll, M. P., & Marsh, N. V. (2002). A multifaceted validation study of Spence and Robbins (1992) workaholism battery. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75, 357-368.
Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin, 82(2), 213-225. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076486
Mussweiler, T., Strack, F., & Pfeiffer, T. (2000). Overcoming the inevitable anchoring effect: Considering the opposite compensates for selective accessibility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(9), 1142-1150.https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672002611010
Oates, W. (1971). Confessions of a workaholic: The facts about work addiction. New York: World Publishing Co. ASIN: B0006CKFY8
O'Brien, K., & Beehr, T. (2019). So far, so good: Up to now, the challenge-hindrance framework describes a practical and accurate distinction. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 40(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2405.
Pellegrini, E. K., & Scandura, T. A. (2008). Paternalistic leadership: A review and agenda for future research: Erratum. Journal of Management, 34(4), 844.https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206308321542
Pierce, J,. & Newstrom, J., (2010). Leaders and the Leadership Process 6th Edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN-13: 978-0078137105
Quattrone, G. A. (1982). Overattribution and unit formation: When behavior engulfs the person. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(4), 593-607.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.4.593
Rabenu, E., Shkoler, O., & Tziner, A. (2016). Workaholism-An interaction between internal and external factors. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings, 1.https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2016.10112abstract
Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161-1178.https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077714
Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review, 110(1), 145-172.https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145
Russell, J. A., & Barrett, L. F. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 805-819.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805
Saari, L. M,. & Judge, T. A. (2004) Employee attitudes and job satisfaction. Human Resource Management, 43, 395-407.https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20032
Scandura, T. A., & Graen, G. B. (1984). Moderating effects of initial leader-member exchange status on the effects of a leadership intervention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(3), 428-436.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.69.3.428
Schaufeli, W. (2012). Work Engagement. What Do We Know and Where Do We Go? Work Engagement in Everyday Life, Business, and Academia. Romanian Journal of Applied Psychology, 14(1), 3-10. ISSN 2392-8441
Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi sample study. Journal of organizational Behavior, 25(3), 293-315.https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248
Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2010). Defining and measuring work engagement: Bringing clarity to the concept. ISBN 978-1-84169-736-9 In A. B. Bakker (Ed.) & M. P. Leiter, Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research (p. 10-24). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84169-736-9
Schaufeli, W. B., & Taris, T. W. (2014). A critical review of the job demands-resources model: Implications for improving work and health. In G. F. Bauer & O. Hämmig (Eds.), Bridging occupational, organizational and public health: A transdisciplinary approach (p. 43-68). Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 9789400756403
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire: A Cross-National Study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701-716.https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282471
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 3(1), 71-92.https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
Schaufeli, W. B., Shimazu, A., & Taris, T. W. (2009). Being driven to work excessively hard: The evaluation of a two-factor measure of workaholism in the Netherlands and Japan. Cross-Cultural Research: The Journal of Comparative Social Science, 43(4), 320-348. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397109337239
Schaufeli, W. B., Taris, T. W., & Bakker, A. B. (2006). Dr Jekyll or Mr Hyde? On the differences between work engagement and workaholism. In R. J. Burke (Ed.), New horizons in management. Research companion to working time and work addiction (p. 193-217). Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN: 978 1 84542
Schaufeli, W. B., Taris, T. W., & van Rhenen, W. (2008). Workaholism, burnout, and work engagement: Three of a kind or three different kinds of employee well-being? Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57(2), 173- 203.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00285.x
Schaufeli, W., & Bakker, A. (2003). Utrecht work engagement scale: Preliminary manual. Utrecht: Occupational Health Psychology Unit, Utrecht University.https://www.wilmarschaufeli.nl/publications/Schaufeli/Test%20Manuals/Test_manual_UWES_English.pdf
Schaufeli, W., & Enzmann, D. (1998). The burnout companion to study and practice: A critical analysis. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. ISBN: 0-7484-0697-2; 0-7484-0698-0
Schwartz, T., & McCarthy, C. (2007). Manage Your Energy Not Your Time. Harvard Business Review.https://hbr.org/2007/10/manage-your-energy-not-your-time
Schwartz, T., Gomes, J., & McCarthy, C. (2010). The Way We're Working Isn't Working: The Four Forgotten Needs That Energize Great Performance. Free Press. ISBN-13: 978-1451610260
Seltzer, J., & Bass, B. M. (1990). Transformational leadership: Beyond initiation and consideration. Journal of Management, 16(4), 693-703.https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639001600403
Shaw, J. D., Delery, J. E., Jenkins, G. D., Jr., & Gupta, N. (1998). An organization-level analysis of voluntary and involuntary turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 41(5), 511-525. https://doi.org/10.2307/256939
Shepperd, J. A., Ouellette, J. A., & Fernandez, J. K. (1996). Abandoning unrealistic optimism: Performance estimates and the temporal proximity of self-relevant feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4), 844-855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.844
Sherony, K. M., & Green, S. G. (2002). Coworker exchange: Relationships between coworkers, leader-member exchange, and work attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 542-548. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.542
Shin, K. H. (2003). The maslach bunout inventory-general survey (MBI-GS): An Application In South Korea. The Korean Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 16(3), 1-17.G704-000280.2003.16.3.009
Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (2004). The Cultural Animal: Twenty Years of Terror Management Theory and Research. In J. Greenberg, S. L. Koole, & T. Pyszczynski (Eds.), Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology (p. 13-34). Guilford Press. ISBN-13: 978-1593850401
Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2002). An emotion- centered model of voluntary work behavior: Some parallels between counterproductive work behavior and organizational citizenship behavior. Human Resource Management Review, 12(2), 269-292.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(02)00049-9
Spence, J. T., & Robbins, A. S. (1992). Workaholism: Definition, measurement, and preliminary results. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58(1), 1600178.https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5801_15
Staw, B. M., Sutton, R. I., & Pelled, L. H. (1994). Employee positive emotion and favorable outcomes at the workplace. Organization Science, 5(1), 51-71.https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.5.1.51
Suh, E., Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1996). Events and subjective well-being: Only recent events matter. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(5), 1091-1102.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.1091
Sung, S. Y. (2019, December 17). Half of the employees said “I’m unpleasant because of money and task”. mun-hwa journal 21. http://m.mhj21.com/126332
Sy, T., Côté, S., & Saavedra, R. (2005). The contagious leader: Impact of the leader's mood on the mood of group members, Group Affective Tone, and Group Processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(2), 295-305.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.295
Taris, T. W., Schaufeli, W. B., & Shimazu, A. (2010). The push and pull of work: The differences between workaholism and work engagement. In A. B. Bakker (Ed.) & M. P. Leiter, Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research (p. 39-53). Psychology Press. ISBN: 978-1-84169-736-9
Thoresen, C. J., Kaplan, S. A., Barsky, A. P., Warren, C. R., & de Chermont, K. (2003). The affective underpinnings of job perceptions and attitudes: A meta-analytic review and integration. Psychological Bulletin, 129(6), 914- 945.https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.6.914
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124-1131.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
Uhl-Bien, M., & Maslyn, J. M. (2003). Reciprocity in manager-subordinate relationships: Components, configurations, and outcomes. Journal of Management, 29(4), 511-532.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2063(03)00023-0
Uskul, A. K., Sherman, D. K., & Fitzgibbon, J. (2009). The cultural congruency effect: Culture, regulatory focus, and the effectiveness of gain- vs. loss-framed health messages. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(3), 535-541.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.12.005
Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H., & Lens, W. (2008). Explaining the relationships between job characteristics, burnout, and engagement: The role of basic psychological need satisfaction. Work & Stress, 22(3), 277-294.https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370802393672
Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H., Soenens, B., & Lens, W. (2010). Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work-related Basic Need Satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Pscychology, 83, 981-1002.DOI:10.1348/096317909X481382
Walkey, F. H., & Green, D. E. (1992). An exhaustive examination of the replicable factor structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(2), 309-323.https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164492052002006
Wallace, J. C., Johnson, P. D., & Frazier, M. L. (2009). An examination of the factorial, construct, and predictive validity and utility of the regulatory focus at work scale. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 805-831.
Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Hudy, M. J. (1997). Overall job satisfaction: How good are single-item measures? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(2), 247-252.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.82.2.247
Wasserstein, R. L., & Lazar, N. A. (2016) The ASA statement on p-values: Context, process, and purpose. The American Statistician, 70(2), 129-133.https://doi.org/10.1080/00031305.2016.1154108
Weiner, B. (2010). The development of an attribution-based theory of motivation: A history of ideas. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 28-36.https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520903433596
Westman, M. (2002). Crossover of stress and strain in the family and in the workplace. In P.L. Perrewé & D.C. Ganster(Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (Vol. 2). JAI Press/Elsevier Science.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1479-3555(02)02004-8
Wilder, D. A., & Shapiro, P. N. (1989). Role of competition-induced anxiety in limiting the beneficial impact of positive behavior by an out-group member. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 60-69.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.60
Yang, H. C., Cho, H. Y. (2018). Analysis method issue: How to control demographic characteristics in regresion analysis. Asia-pacifc Journal of Multimedia Services Convergent with Art, Humanites, and Sociology 8(9), 615-626. http:/dx.doi.org/10.21742/AJMAHS.2018.09.75
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Attribution of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory. Applied Psychology: An International Review.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1979.tb00202.x