An experience sampling study of the benefits and limitations of non-face-to-face socially supportive exchanges on recovery during COVID-19 pandemic
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Social distancing due to the COVID-19 pandemic has restricted socially supportive exchanges to a non-face-to-face method. This study examined whether and how both socially supportive exchanges (i.e., face-to-face and non-face-to-face) help the recovery process. Based on the conservation of resources theory and the complementarity hypothesis, we hypothesized a moderated mediation model where positive affect mediates the effects of both socially supportive exchanges on recovery, and the level of the face-to-face exchanges would moderate the mediation effect of the non-face-to-face exchanges. Multilevel linear modeling analyses of data collected from daily surveys of 118 university students over two weeks largely supported the hypothesized model. Specifically, both socially supportive exchanges positively affected the recovery outcomes (i.e., state of being recovered and sleep quality) through positive affect. Although the moderated mediation effect was not statistically significant, a simple effect analysis showed that the positive effect of non-face-to-face socially supportive exchanges on the recovery process existed only when the days of face-to-face socially supportive exchanges were low, which is consistent with the hypothesized model. The findings of this study shed light on the potential positive effects of non-face-to-face socially supportive exchanges, especially when face-to-face social interaction is restricted.
Metrics
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Funding data
References
Arora, T., & Grey, I. (2020). Health behaviour changes during COVID-19 and the potential consequences: A mini-review. Journal of Health Psychology, 25(9), 1155-1163.https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320937053
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Euwema, M. C. (2005). Job resources buffer the impact of job demands on burnout. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(2), 170-180.https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.2.170
Barnes, C. M., Lucianetti, L., Bhave, D. P., & Christian, M. S. (2015). “You wouldn’t like me when i’m sleepy”: Leaders’ sleep, daily abusive supervision, and work unit engagement. Academy of Management Journal, 58(5), 1419-1437.https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2013.1063
Baym, N. K., Zhang, Y. B., & Lin, M. C. (2004). Social interactions across media: Interpersonal communication on the internet, telephone and face-to-face. New Media and Society, 6(3), 299-318.https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444804041438
Binnewies, C., Sonnentag, S., & Mojza, E. J. (2009). Daily performance at work: Feeling recovered in the morning as a predictor of day-level job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(1), 67-93.https://doi.org/10.1002/job.541
Brannan, D. L. (2011). Effects of daily social support on tension-reduction drinking [Doctoral dissertation, Portland State University]. PDXScholar. https://doi.org/10.15760/etd.764
Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912-920.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
Brown, S. L., Nesse, R. M., Vinokur, A. D., & Smith, D. M. (2003). Providing social support may be more beneficial than receiving It: results from a prospective study of mortality. Psychological Science, 14(4), 320-327.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.14461
Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (1989). The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Research, 28(2), 193-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4
Cialdini, R. B., Darby, B. L., & Vincent, J. E. (1973). Transgression and altruism: A case for hedonism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9(6), 502-516.
Clair, R., Gordon, M., Kroon, M., & Reilly, C. (2021). The effects of social isolation on well-being and life satisfaction during pandemic. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 8(1), 1-6.https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00710-3
Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1988). Mood and the mundane: relations between daily life events and self-reported mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 296.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.2.296
Coltman, T., Devinney, T. M., Midgley, D. F., & Venaik, S. (2008). Formative versus reflective measurement models: Two applications of formative measurement. Journal of Business Research, 61(12), 1250-1262.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.013
Cooper, A. B., Pauletti, R. E., & DiDonato, C. A. (2020). You, me, and no one else: Degree of social distancing and personality predict psychological wellness and relationship quality during the COVID-19 pandemic(preprint).https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/w6dru
Craig, A., & Cooper, R. E. (1992). Symptoms of acute and chronic fatigue. In A. P. Smith & D. M. Jones (Eds.), Handbook of human performance (Vol. 3, pp. 289-339). Academic Press.
Edwards, K. D., & Konold, T. R. (2020). Moderated mediation analysis: A review and application to school climate research. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 25(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.7275/16436623
Fredman, L., Gordon, S. A., Heeren, T., & Stuver, S. O. (2014). Positive affect is associated with fewer sleep problems in older caregivers but not noncaregivers. Gerontologist, 54(4), 559-569. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnt040
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3(1), 1-25.https://doi.org/10.1037/1522-3736.3.1.31a
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226.
Gable, S. L., Reis, H. T., & Elliot, A. J. (2000). Behavioral activation and inhibition in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(6), 1135-1149.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1135
Geldhof, G. J., Preacher, K. J., & Zyphur, M. J. (2014). Reliability estimation in a multilevel confirmatory factor analysis framework. Psychological Methods, 19(1), 72-91.https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032138
Greenglass, E. R., & Fiksenbaum, L. (2009). Proactive coping, positive affec, and well-being: Testing for mediation using path analysis. European Psychologist, 14(1), 29-39. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.14.1.29
Gregg, V. H., & Shepherd, A. J. (2009). Factor structure of scores on the state version of the four dimension mood scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(1), 146-156.https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408322002
Grey, I., Arora, T., Thomas, J., Saneh, A., Tomhe, P., & Abi-Habib, R. (2020). The role of perceived social support on depression and sleep during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113452
Guillory, J. E., Hancock, J. T., Woodruff, C., & Keilman, J. (2015). Text Messaging Reduces Analgesic Requirements During Surgery. Pain Medicine, 16(4), 667-672.https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12610
Harandi, T. F., Taghinasab, M. M., & Nayeri, T. D. (2017). The correlation of social support with mental health: A meta-analysis. Electronic Physician, 9(9), 5212-5222.https://doi.org/10.19082/5212
Hobfoll, S E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524.https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
Hobfoll, Stevan E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6(4), 307-324.https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307
Hobfoll, Stevan E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J.-P., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 103-128.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-
Holtzman, S., DeClerck, D., Turcotte, K., Lisi, D., & Woodworth, M. (2017). Emotional support during times of stress: Can text messaging compete with in-person interactions? Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 130-139.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.043
Huelsman, T. J., Nemanick Jr, R. C., & Munz, D. C. (1998). Scales to measure four dimensions of dispositional mood: Positive energy, tiredness, negative activation, and relaxation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58(5), 804-819.https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164498058005006
Hunter, J. F., Hooker, E. D., Rohleder, N., & Pressman, S. D. (2018). The Use of Smartphones as a Digital Security Blanket: The Influence of Phone Use and Availability on Psychological and Physiological Responses to Social Exclusion. Psychosomatic Medicine, 80(4), 345-352.https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000568
Hunter, J. F., Jones, N. M., Delgadillo, D., & Kaveladze, B. (2022). The Influence of Technology on the Assessment and Conceptualization of Social Support. In Quantifying Quality of Life (pp. 373-394). Springer, Cham.
Kent de Grey, R. G., Uchino, B. N., Trettevik, R., Cronan, S., & Hogan, J. N. (2018). Social support and sleep: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology, 37(8), 787.https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000628
Kushlev, K., & Heintzelman, S. J. (2018). Put the phone down: Testing a complement-interfere model of computer-mediated communication in the context of face-to-face interactions. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9(6), 702-710.https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617722199
Litwiller, B., Snyder, L. A., Taylor, W. D., & Steele, L. M. (2017). The relationship between sleep and work: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(4), 682.https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000169
Meijman, T. F., & Mulder, G. (1998). Psychological aspects of workload. In P. J. D. Drenth & C. J. de Wolff (Eds.), Handbook of Work and Organizational Psychology. (Vol. 2, pp. 5-33). Psychology Press.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthen, B. (2017). Mplus User’s Guide: Statistical Analysis with Latent Variables (7th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
Nguyen, M. H., Gruber, J., Fuchs, J., Marler, W., Hunsaker, A., & Hargittai, E. (2020). Changes in digital communication during the COVID-19 global pandemic: Implications for digital inequality and future research. Social Media and Society, 6(3).https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120948255
Pulido-Martos, M., Cortés-Denia, D., & Lopez-Zafra, E. (2021). Teleworking in times of COVID-19: Effects on the acquisition of personal resources. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1-7.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685275
Rodriguez-Llanes, J. M., Vos, F., & Guha-Sapir, D. (2013). Measuring psychological resilience to disasters: Are evidence-based indicators an achievable goal? Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source, 12(1), 1-10.https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-12-115
Rzeszutek, M. (2017). Social support and posttraumatic growth in a longitudinal study of people living with HIV: the mediating role of positive affect. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1-12.https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1412225
Schiffrin, H. H., Edelman, A., Falkenster, M., & Stewart, C. (2010). The Associations among computer mediated communication, relationships, and well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(3), 299-306.
Short, J., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. New York: Wiley.
Sin, F., Berger, S., Kim, I. J., & Yoon, D. (2021). Digital social interaction in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 5(CSCW2), 380-399.https://doi.org/10.1145/3479524
Sonnentag, S., Binnewies, C., & Mojza, E. J. (2008). “Did you have a nice evening?” A day-level study on recovery experiences, sleep, and affect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 674-684.https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.674
Sonnentag, S., & Kruel, U. (2006). Psychological detachment from work during off-job time: The role of job stressors, job involvement, and recovery-related self-efficacy. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15(2), 197-217.https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320500513939
Steptoe, A., O’Donnell, K., Marmot, M., & Wardle, J. (2008). Positive affect, psychological well-being, and good sleep. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64(4), 409-415.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.11.008
Taylor, S. E. (2011). Social support: A review. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Health Psychology (pp. 189-214). Oxford University Press.
Taylor, S. E., & Broffman, J. I. (2011). Psychosocial resources: Functions, origins, and links to mental and physical health. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (1st ed., Vol. 44). Elsevier Inc.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385522-0.00001-9
Ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). A resource perspective on the work-home interface: The work-home resources model. American Psychologist, 67(7), 545-556.https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027974
Uchino, B. N., Bowen, K., de Grey, R. K., Mikel, J., & Fisher, E. B. (2018). Social support and physical health: Models, mechanisms, and opportunities. In Principles and concepts of behavioral medicine (pp. 341-372). Springer.
Uchino, B. N., Trettevik, R., Kent de Grey, R. G., Cronan, S., Hogan, J., & Baucom, B. R. W. (2018). Social support, social integration, and inflammatory cytokines: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology, 37(5), 462-471.https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000594
Vargas, I., Howie, E. K., Muench, A., & Perlis, M. L. (2021). Measuring the effects of social isolation and dissatisfaction on depressive symptoms during the covid-19 pandemic: The moderating role of sleep and physical activity. Brain Sciences, 11(11), 1449-1462.https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111449
Xiao, H., Zhang, Y., Kong, D., Li, S., & Yang, N. (2020). The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research, 26, e923549-1-e923549-8.